Church of Christ: The Quest for Primitive and True New Testament Church
Written by: JAO Vergara | January 31, 2026
The Second Great Awakening (c. 1790–1840) was a seismic shift in the religious landscape of the United States, representing a radical departure from the structured ecclesiastical traditions of the Old World. While the First Great Awakening of the mid-18th century focused largely on internal piety, "heart religion," and emotional conversion within existing denominations, the Second Great Awakening was characterized by a fervent desire to "restore" the church to its primitive, New Testament pattern. It was a populist, grassroots movement that rejected formal creedalism, clerical elitism, and centralized hierarchy in favor of individual scriptural interpretation, local autonomy, and the absolute authority of the New Testament as the only "rule of faith and practice." This movement did not seek to "fix" a broken system, but rather to bypass centuries of human history to reclaim the "Ancient Landmark" of the apostolic age.
1. Precursors and Historical Background
The movement emerged from a unique convergence of post-Revolutionary War fervor, Enlightenment thought, and the practical necessities of the American frontier:
The Post-Revolutionary Spirit: After the American Revolution, the nascent United States was swept by a wave of radical democratization. There was a widespread cultural rejection of anything that smelled of "monarchy," "entailed authority," or European "aristocracy." This democratic spirit bled into religion; if Americans could govern themselves politically without a king, they believed they should be able to govern themselves spiritually without a distant bishop, a synod, or an ancient creed. This "Jeffersonian" approach to religion emphasized the common man's ability to read and understand the Bible for himself. It was a period of "Common Sense" philosophy, where the average person was deemed capable of discerning truth without the mediation of a professional clerical class.
The Failure of Deism and Rationalism: In the late 18th century, Enlightenment Deism—the concept of a "Clockmaker God" who created the world and then stepped back—had gained significant ground among the intellectual elite but left a spiritual vacuum in the general populace. Many found this rationalistic approach intellectually cold and spiritually bankrupt. People were hungry for a "felt" relationship with God that was also grounded in the plain, unadulterated text of the Bible, leading to a surge in biblical realism. They sought a faith that was both intellectually defensible through the "evidence" of Scripture and emotionally satisfying through a direct connection to the Divine.
The Frontier Environment: As settlers moved West into the rugged territories of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio, the established "State Churches" (such as the Anglican/Episcopal or Congregationalist bodies) could not keep pace with the rapid expansion. The physical distance from established religious centers and the lack of formally trained clergy on the frontier forced laypeople to take up leadership roles. This environment proved to be fertile ground for following the priesthood of all believers as it is written in the Scripture. In these isolated communities, the Bible was often the only book available, and its "plain meaning" became the ultimate arbiter of truth. Religion became mobile, decentralized, and intensely personal, mirroring the rugged independence of the pioneers themselves.
2. The Background of the Key Players
The movement was led by men who were often highly educated and trained in traditional high-church or Reformed traditions, but who became deeply disillusioned by the sectarian divisions and "party spirit" they observed:
Barton W. Stone (1772–1844): Stone was a Presbyterian minister who found himself increasingly disturbed by the rigid Calvinist doctrines of election and predestination, which he felt hindered the spread of the Gospel. In 1801, he helped lead the famous Cane Ridge Revival in Kentucky, an event attended by up to 20,000 people that transcended denominational lines. Stone and his associates eventually dissolved their local Presbytery, signing the Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery (1804). This document was a symbolic "death" to their denomination, declaring that their only goal was to simply be "Christian" and follow the Bible alone. Stone’s vision was one of Christian unity based on the simple commonality of the name "Christian," rejecting any label that suggested a division in the body of Christ.
Thomas Campbell (1763–1851) & Alexander Campbell (1788–1866): Father and son who immigrated from Ireland and Scotland, bringing with them a deep-seated frustration with the fragmentation of the Presbyterian church in their homeland. Thomas Campbell’s Declaration and Address (1809) became a foundational text for the movement, famously stating: "The Church of Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one." His son, Alexander Campbell, was a brilliant debater and publisher who became the intellectual powerhouse of the "Disciples" movement. He argued for a "scientific" or "Baconian" approach to the Bible—stripping away centuries of human tradition to find the "blueprint" of the original church. For Alexander, the Bible was a book of "facts" that, when properly arranged, revealed a consistent and unchangeable pattern for church governance and worship.
3. The Union and Split: Christians and Disciples
In the early 1830s, these two independent streams—Stone’s "Christians" and Campbell’s "Disciples"—began to merge into a single, formidable force, representing a unique moment in American religious history where two distinct restoration movements chose unity over sectarianism.
The Great Union (1832)
In Lexington, Kentucky, leaders from both sides shook hands in a historic show of unity. They agreed on the "silence of Scripture"—a principle often summarized as "Where the Bible speaks, we speak; where the Bible is silent, we are silent." They rejected human creeds, which they viewed as "walls of separation," and sought to unite all believers under the name of Christ alone. This was not a merger of organizations, but a fellowship of individuals who decided to call themselves simply "Christians" or "Disciples." For several decades, they were a unified force, becoming one of the fastest-growing religious movements in American history, appealing to the pioneer's sense of logic and their desire for a simple, biblical faith.
The Eventual Split (1906)
Despite their shared goal of restoration, the union eventually fractured due to differing hermeneutical (interpretive) approaches to the "silence of Scripture." As the frontier era ended and a more settled, affluent society emerged, tensions arose regarding how to adapt to the modern world.
The Progressive Branch (Disciples of Christ): This group adopted a more "permissive" view of silence. They argued that if the Bible didn't explicitly forbid something (like a piano or a centralized mission board), it was permissible as an "expedient"—a tool to help fulfill the Great Commission. They believed the church had the freedom to use modern means to achieve ancient goals.
The Conservative Branch (Churches of Christ): This group argued that silence was prohibitive. They believed that the silence of the New Testament regarding instrumental music in worship (which only mentions "singing") meant that such instruments were an unauthorized addition to God's plan. For them, "expediency" could never override "authority." They feared that if the church could innovate where the Bible was silent, there would be no limit to human invention in religion, eventually leading to a full departure from the New Testament pattern.
The Official Break: The internal rift, exacerbated by cultural and regional differences following the American Civil War, grew so wide that by 1906, the U.S. Census Bureau officially recognized the "Churches of Christ" and the "Disciples of Christ" as separate religious bodies. This split remains a significant moment of reflection for those committed to the "unity" plea of the movement.
4. Academic and Theological Justification
A common historical misconception is to view all non-Catholic groups as "Protestants" who split from Rome. However, the Restoration Movement (Stone-Campbell) rejects this categorization, offering a distinct theological and academic defense of their origin.
A. The "Succession of Truth" (The Seed Principle)
Theological scholars in this tradition argue that the church is "born of the Seed," citing the Parable of the Sower.
The Justification: The identity of the church is found in its adherence to the Word, not in an unbroken chain of human hands. If a person today obeys the New Testament, that person becomes what the people in the New Testament became: a Christian. Just as a seed produces the same fruit 2,000 years later regardless of how many generations of fields have passed, the Word of God produces the same Church whenever it is faithfully planted in the hearts of men. Therefore, they did not "split" from Rome; they "bypassed" the entire medieval period and the Reformation to return to the original source. This "succession of truth" is seen as far more reliable than a "succession of office," which is subject to human corruption.
B. Primitivism vs. Protestantism
Academically, the Restoration Movement is classified as Primitivism, which is fundamentally different from Protestantism in its goal and methodology.
Protestantism is historically defined as a movement to reform an existing institution. Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli were "protesting" against the Roman Catholic Church and sought to correct its perceived errors while maintaining many of its traditional structures and creeds.
Restorationism seeks to ignore existing institutions as unauthorized and recreate the 1st-century model from scratch using the Bible as the sole blueprint. It does not seek to "fix" the Catholic Church or the Lutheran Church; it seeks to start where the Apostles started. Because their aim was to restore the "Ancient Landmark" rather than reform a late-developing hierarchy, they represent a logically distinct category of Christianity that exists outside the Catholic-Protestant binary.
5. Biblical and Historical Support
Key Scriptural Foundations
On Authority: "All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, equipped for every good work" (2 Timothy 3:16-17). This establishes the sufficiency of the Bible without the need for additional traditions.
On the Headship of Christ: "And he is the head of the body, the church. He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in everything he might be preeminent" (Colossians 1:18). This underscores that no human can claim supreme authority over the Church.
On the Seed Principle: "Now the parable is this: The seed is the word of God" (Luke 8:11). This is the foundation of the belief that the Word alone can replicate the original church.
On the Priesthood of All Believers: "But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession..." (1 Peter 2:9). This verse is central to the rejection of a special clerical class that stands between the believer and God.
On Local Leadership: "This is why I left you in Crete, so that you might put what remained into order, and appoint elders in every town as I directed you" (Titus 1:5). This provides the scriptural basis for the autonomy of the local church under a plurality of elders.
On Maintaining the Original Pattern: "I appeal to you, brothers, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that all of you agree, and that there be no divisions among you..." (1 Corinthians 1:10). This serves as the "Unity Plea" that drove the early Restorationists.
Key Historical and Academic Figures
James O'Kelly (1735–1826): An early leader in the "Christian" movement who broke from the Methodist Episcopal Church, insisting on "no head but Christ" and "no creed but the Bible." His movement was one of the earliest to adopt the name "Christian" exclusively.
Elias Smith (1769–1846) & Abner Jones (1772–1841): Baptist-background leaders in New England who independently sought a return to the "Christian" name and New Testament order, proving that the desire for restoration was widespread and not limited to one region.
David Lipscomb (1831–1917): A central figure in the Churches of Christ after the split, known for his firm stance on the prohibitive nature of scriptural silence and local autonomy. He edited the Gospel Advocate for decades, shaping the identity of the conservative wing.
Saint Frumentius (4th Century): Historical figure who brought Christianity to Ethiopia (Aksum), demonstrating the early "Southern" spread of the faith independent of Roman administrative control. His work proves that the "universal" claims of Rome were geographically and historically limited.
Apostle Thomas: Historically associated with the "Saint Thomas Christians" in India, providing a precedent for apostolic churches existing outside the Latin/Western sphere for centuries. These communities preserved the faith in a completely different cultural context, demonstrating the adaptability and independence of the original church pattern.
Conclusion
The Second Great Awakening was not a "new" invention or a 19th-century sect, but a populist reclamation of the New Testament. The union of Stone and Campbell demonstrated the power of a "Bible-only" plea to bridge denominational divides, while their eventual split serves as a cautionary tale on the complexities of maintaining unity through differing views of authority. Most importantly, the movement represents a refusal to be defined by the historical baggage of the Roman/Protestant conflict, asserting instead a direct, unmediated connection to the Apostles and the absolute Lordship of Jesus Christ. By looking back to the "Ancient Landmark," they provided a path for modern seekers to find a faith that is as old as the cross and as fresh as the morning.